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## Why we need theories & concepts
A bachelor's thesis is longer and more complex than any other essay that students write throughout their studies. While most papers in BA DS courses are essentially extended literature reviews (in which students discuss existing publications), the thesis requires them to gather sources or data for an independent analysis. Therefore, a BA DS thesis needs to have several additional elements.
One of them is a **conceptual or theoretical (sometimes also called "analytical") framework** to explain why the student is analysing sources or data (e.g. interviews or survey responses) in a certain way. This "point of view" has to be rooted in **concepts** (abstract ideas relevant to a certain field of research) or a proper theory. A **theory** is a more elaborate scientific framework (often developed & refined by more than one person) that explains patterns and developments. Ideally, a theory applies to different case studies and helps you phrase a hypothesis about how society works. Theories also allow researchers to streamline and focus their analysis.
## Purpose of this wiki
3rd-year students at FASoS often struggle with the conceptual or theoretical framework and are sometimes unaware of the concepts and theories taught in their academic programme. This wiki aims to help students remember what they have learned and find a suitable approach for their thesis. The brief theory descriptions in this repository have been created collaboratively by the FASoS teaching staff and offer a starting point for the students' research. As theories are often contested and develop over time, the descriptions and resources provided here cannot be final or complete. In fact, the term *wiki* comes from the Hawaiian expression *wiki wiki*, which means "very quick".
Please note that most of the sources linked are tertiary sources (handbooks and encyclopaedias), and should be used to find helpful articles or books rather than as the core sources in literature reviews and theses.
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### Actor-Network Theory (ANT)
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**ANT** scholars (you have read about Michel Callon or Bruno Latour) are critical of the notion of _the Social_ as a separate realm from _the Material_. Instead, ANT aims to map relations that are simultaneously material (between things) and semiotic or social-cultural (between concepts). As such ANT is relational, it is a constructivist approach that focuses on how events and phenomena obtain meaning through the relationships of different heterogeneous actors or actants. ANT is particularly interesting for us in studying processes of digitalization that as you know entail both material and cultural/social aspects.
Callon, M., Law, J., & Rip, A. (1986). [Mapping the dynamics of science and technology: sociology of science in the real world](https://maastrichtuniversity.on.worldcat.org/oclc/13159883). Macmillan.
Callon, M., Lascoumes, P., & Barthe, Y. (2009). [Acting in an uncertain world: an essay on technical democracy](https://maastrichtuniversity.on.worldcat.org/oclc/229467395) (Ser. Inside technology). MIT Press.
McGee, K. (2014). [Bruno Latour: the normativity of networks](https://maastrichtuniversity.on.worldcat.org/oclc/776535261) (Ser. Nomikoi : critical legal thinkers). Routledge.
Summary provided by Simone Schleper (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Agency
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**Agency** theories comprise different definitions and concepts depending on subject areas. In the social sciences, _agency_ is defined as the capacity of individuals to actively and independently choose and engage. Therefore, agency theories are linked with (political) participation and power theories.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Automation
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The impact of **automation** (e.g. the reduction of human intervention in industrial production or data processing) was a central theme of the BA DS course "Artificial Society". Automation was, for instance, discussed concerning the future of labour markets. The course also offered an introduction to the **critique of automation**.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### (Algorithmic) Bias
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In ‘What is (a) Digital Society?’ we introduced the notion of ‘bias’ in discussions of the common idea that technology is neutral. One of the key themes of that course was precisely about this notion of neutrality. In several modules, we explored how digital technologies are made to serve the interests of particular groups. This comes up in other courses, including ‘Digitalisation and politics’ and ‘Surveillance Society’. Bias can arise from absence of data (e.g. if only male bodies are used to collect data about the effectiveness of medicines), or by the classifications made by data scientists (e.g. that racializes groups when making decisions about jobs, mortgages, etc.)
- Reference (in UM Library): O’Neil, C. (2016). Weapons of Math Destruction. How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy. Crown Publishing.
You read various chapters of this book for ‘What is (a) Digital Society?’.
Pay attention to different meanings of bias you have encountered. Here we are talking about prejudices against individuals or groups that lead to unfair outcomes. But you have also learned about statistical bias (in ‘Quanitative Data Analysis’ and ‘Working with Big Data’). For statisticians, bias is a technical term, often referring to the lack of representativeness of data.
Summary provided by Sally Wyatt, based on the sources cited.
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### Big Data
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In ‘What is (a) Digital Society?’ there was one module in which we introduced the term ‘big data’, and this was further picked up in ‘Working with Big Data’. ‘Big data’ as a term started to be used in the 1990s, but really accelerated after 2007. Very simply, the term refers to large volumes of data of different types (numbers, text, images, etc.) that cannot be collected or analysed in a reasonable length of time by hand or by using conventional data analysis tools. Big data promises to contribute to solving major societal problems, for example, in health care or related to the climate crisis. But it also comes with risks, to individual privacy and to the reliability of knowledge.
- See also entry about bias and the book by Cathy O’Neil, and Wyatt, S. (2022). Critical (Big) Data Studies. In D. Cressman (Ed.), The Necessity of Critique: Andrew Feenberg and the Philosophy of Technology (pp. 127–142). Springer. (in UM Library)
Summary provided by Sally Wyatt, based on the sources cited.
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### Critical Making (see *design thinking* in methods)
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**Critical making** as a reflection on design and production processes is linked with the practical aspects of **design thinking** and **maker cultures** (see methods). Critical making is a theoretical approach that promotes hands-on activities to link digital technologies with societal needs. It combines creative, physical, and conceptual exploration. The attempt to put users / customers at the centre of product development also links critical making with **human-centred design**.
In the BA DS programme, critical making and design thinking were taught in the "Maker Cultures" course.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Critical Theory (Frankfurt School)
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Critical Theory (as proposed by the Frankfurt School) is a Marxist-inspired movement in social and political philosophy. It was originally associated with the work of researchers based in Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Critical Theory, in this narrow sense, has developed over several historical phases and generations since the late 1920s. Important scholars of the Frankfurt School were Horkheimer, Adorno, Marcuse and Habermas. Jürgen Habermas's idea of the public sphere was covered in the BA DS course "Digitalisation and Politics" but also mentioned in the BA DS course "Controversies"/"Critical Debates". We also looked at recent criticism and re-interpretations (see reading on the "[online anti-public sphere](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1367549420902799)" by Mark Davis).
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Connectivity
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The humanities and social sciences theories of **connectivity** are closely linked with **social network theory**. Social network theory analyses the role of social relationships in the transmission of information, the dissemination of ideas, or the transportation of goods.
In mathematics and computer science, the concept of **connectivity** is often used in **graph theory** and describes the composition of sub-graphs. From a technological perspective, connectivity relates to the set-up of **communication networks**, e.g., end-user integration.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Culture / Cultural Theory
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As Spencer-Oatey (2012) discussed, cultural theory originated in the 19th century when academic cultural studies evolved. Cultural theory was initially marked by a dichotomy of "culture versus anarchy" (Matthew Arnold, 1869). The academic discourse was also inspired by German "cultural history," which first focused on "high culture" (with an imperial undercurrent) and later incorporated (global) anthropology. The post-World War II era shifted towards exploring "popular culture". Consequently, more attention was paid to diverse expressions of art, new media concepts, and criticism of elites.
The emergence of "political culture" in the 1950s prompted critical inquiries into the visibility and accessibility of culture, participants' eligibility, and cultural phenomena's sustainability. The juxtaposition of _culture_ versus _identity_ led to exploring different "levels of culture," including pre-conscious and taken-for-granted aspects of our daily experience. Culture is now often conceptualised as an intermediary between the individual and global humanity, while it remains a dynamic "construct." The recent development of inherently **digital cultures** came with hopes for peaceful transnationality and greater inclusivity. It has to be critically discussed if and in what contexts these hopes have been fulfilled.
One pertinent problem is the **attribution of definitions** by "outsiders" to the **cultures of others**. Researchers, therefore, emphasise the necessity to discuss **cultures in the plural** to mitigate the risk of misunderstandings. The duality of "culture" as both "etic" and "emic" further complicates its understanding. It is important to remember that cultures undergo continuous change.
Regarding research methods, culture is analysed qualitatively and quantitatively, but statistical analyses especially raise the question of what we can deduct from available data. Vincent Miller's study "Understanding Digital Culture" points out that research into digital cultures has to be more than "internet studies" and should include reflections on gaming, big data, surveillance, and algorithms. Grant D. Bollmer makes suggestions for "Theorizing Digital Cultures" and explores cybernetics, online identities, aesthetics and ecologies. Contemporary research in digital cultures also examines phenomena like YouTube personalities, "liking" and "following" behaviours, digital performances, and digital creativity.
Arnold M. (1869). Culture and anarchy: an essay in political and social criticism. Smith Elder.
Bollmer, G. D. (2018). Theorizing digital cultures. SAGE Publications.
Miller V. (2011). Understanding digital culture. SAGE Publications.
Spencer-Oatey, H. (2012) What is culture? A compilation of quotations. GlobalPAD Core Concepts.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Datafication
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**Datafication** is a concept used to describe the "quantification of human life through digital information, very often for economic value". (Mejias and Couldry, 2019, **add page reference**) Datafication affects different aspects of human society, from education to healthcare. Social science research on datafication has, inter alia, been influenced by Bruno Latour's work. Datafication was important in the BA DS courses "Surveillance Society" and "What is a Digital Society?". In "What is a Digital Society", technological determinism, often linked with the belief in the neutrality of technology, was critically discussed and contrasted with the interdisciplinary approaches of _Science and technology studies (STS)_ (see separate entries on Actor-Network Theory, and Technological Determinism).
Mejias, U. A. & Couldry, N. (2019). [Datafication](https://doi.org/10.14763/2019.4.1428). Internet Policy Review, 8(4).
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Death of Data
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Theoretical approaches concerning the "**death of data**" were a tutorial topic in the BA DS course "Making Your Own Online Presence". On the one hand, the "death of data" relates to data loss or deletion motivated by infrastructural change, political decisions, or individual users' "**right to be forgotten**" (Fichtelman, 2018). On the other hand, the "death of data" is a concept in positivist versus poststructuralist debates on what data are in the first place and who has the power or the right to create them. In these debates, researchers discuss whether the existence of data depends on specific infrastructures or a theory that “acknowledges them as data” ([St. Pierre & Adams](https://worldcat.org/en/title/919307958), 2011, p. 621).
Fichtelman, C. A. (2018). [_Right to be forgotten: a legal research guide_](https://worldcat.org/en/title/1047651215) (Ser. Legal research guides, volume 73). William S. Hein & Co. \[Book\]
Koro-Ljungberg, M., MacLure, M., & Denzin, N. K. (2013). [“the death of data?”](https://journals-sagepub-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/doi/10.1177/1532708613487882#bibr25-1532708613487882) Cultural Studies \<-\> Critical Methodologies, 13(4), 353–356.
St. Pierre, Adams E. (2011). “[Post qualitative research: The critique and the coming after](https://worldcat.org/en/title/919307958).” In Denzin N. K., Lincoln Y. S. (Eds.), _Handbook of qualitative research_, 4/e (pp. 611-626). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. \[Book\]
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Digital Activism
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**Digital activism** as a contemporary form of collective action is also known as cyberactivism and comprises forms of group activism that rely on digital media/platforms. Digital activism was discussed in the BA DS course "What is a Digital Society?", which also mentioned **data activism** as an activism sub-culture closely linked with the hacker and open-source movements.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Digital Divide
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The digital divide concept concerns the gaps between different social groups (based on age, gender, education, etc.) demographics, and regions with easy access to modern information and communications technologies (ICTs) and those with restricted or no access. Theories of the digital divide try to analyse systematically analyse the extent of the gaps, why these gaps occur and how they can be closed in the future. The four most prominent theories are the Adoption-Diffusion Theory (ADT), van Dijk's Theory of Digital Technology Access and Societal Impacts, the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), and the Spatially Aware Technology Utilization Model (SATUM).
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Digitalisation / Digital Transformation
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**Digitalisation** is the coordinated use of digital technologies in different fields of human life. Discussing digitalisation from a social sciences perspective implies the analysis of social practices that come with an increased reliance on digital infrastructures. Such practices were covered in the BA DS course "What is a digital society?". Effects of digitalisation on political structures, political participation and democratic practices were the focus of the course "Digitalisation and Politics".
**Digital transformation**, as a process, relates to introducing digital technology into an organisation or social group. Common goals for its implementation are to improve efficiency, value, or innovation. Digital transformation as a theoretical approach analyses strategies businesses, governments, or NGOs apply to link technological change with cultural, managerial, or procedural developments of the organisation as a whole.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Digital Literacy / Data Literacy
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**Digital literacy** describes the skills which people need to "[live, learn, and work in a society where communication and access to information are increasingly through digital technologies like internet platforms, social media, and mobile device](https://www.westernsydney.edu.au/studysmart/home/study_skills_guides/digital_literacy/what_is_digital_literacy)." (Western Sydney University) In this sense, digital literacy is connected with broader concepts of **media literacy**.
According to [Eurostat](https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Glossary:Digital_literacy) Links to an external site., digital literacy comprises five competence areas and 21 digital competencies, including "information and **data literacy**, communication and collaboration, digital content creation, safety, and problem-solving". **Data literacy** is the ability to make sense of data, contextualise them, and critically apply them.
Digital literacy and data literacy were addressed in the BA DS courses "What is a digital society?" and "Regulating the Digital".
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Disintermediation
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‘Disintermediaton’ refers to cutting out those people or organisations that traditionally came between (or mediated relationships between) producers and consumers. For example, Spotify removes the need for record/CD distributors and retailers. This was discussed in relation to the ‘platform society’ in ‘What is (a) Digital Society?’ This also appeared in the text by Tim Jordan (2020) that you read for the ‘Critical Reading Test’. In the chapter you read, ‘Taxis, Hotels and Blockchains’, Jordan describes the disintermediation that occurs with Uber and Booking.com, etc.
References:
• Jordan, T. (2020). The digital economy. Polity. (in UM Library)
• Woodcock, J., & Graham, M. (2020). The gig economy. A critical introduction. Polity. (free to download at: https://acdc2007.free.fr/woodcock2020.pdf )
Summary provided by Sally Wyatt, based on the sources cited.
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### Eudaimonia
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The concept of **eudaimonia** goes back to the works of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle and is commonly translated as "happiness" or "welfare". In Aristotle's writing, eudaimonia was the highest human good. Concepts of "happiness" or the "good life" (in the context of a digital society) were the central theme of the BA DS course "The Good Life", in which you discussed welfare practices (e.g. **e-health**), "**virtue ethics**", and the concept of “**Responsible Research and Innovation**" (RRI). RRI, according to the European Commission, means that different societal actors work together in research and innovation processes to better align procedures and outcomes with the values, needs and expectations of European society.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Feminist Theory (e.g. data feminism)
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Different authors have shaped **feminist theory** as a research approach, often in conjunction with the **five waves** of cultural and political feminism. A recent strand of feminist theory which pays particular attention to power relations and biases in the digital age is [data feminism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Feminism). Feminist theory not only concerns women's societal roles but also considers [intersectionality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersectionality) and challenges hierarchies and inequalities more generally.
D'Ignazio, C., & Klein, L. F. (2020). [_Data feminism_](https://worldcat.org/en/title/1130235839) (Ser. Ideas series). MIT Press. \[Book\]
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### (Digital/Online) Identity
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**Identity** was discussed in several BA DS courses, including "Making Your Own Online Presence" and "idt1". In the digital age, identity is often linked with deliberate **self-branding** on digital platforms.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Imaginaries & Metaphors
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The role of **imaginaries and metaphors** in our interactions with technology was an essential topic of the BA DS course "What is a digital society?". (Social) imaginaries are (collective) ideas, practices, or values that shape the identity of a group of people or society as a whole. **Socio-technical imaginaries** are a concept that helps us analyse relations between scientific or technological developments on the one hand and institutions and power structures on the other.
**Metaphors** are figures of speech that describe an object through comparison or through an image which we would commonly associate with a different object or context. Alongside imaginaries, metaphors can give valuable insights into underlying emotions or expectations that people cannot with technological change.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Infrastructural inversion
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In the course ‘Controversies in Digital Society’, we discussed ‘infrastructures’, essential to the functioning of the contemporary world, including electricity, transport, and the internet. Infrastructures are often defined as easy to use but hard to see, and only noticeable when they do NOT work. In many courses, you were reminded of the materiality of digital technologies. The infrastructure supporting digital societies includes devices such as smartphones and laptops, and also includes satellites, underground and undersea cables, routers, standards, and many other physical and symbolic objects.
‘Infrastructural inversion’ is a concept/method introduced by Bowker and Star (1999) to help us be attentive to infrastructures, by learning to look closely at the technologies and practices (see Practice theory entry) that tend to fade into the woodwork, sometimes literally. These include paying attention to technical standards and protocols, and to both the symbolic and material aspects of infrastructure.
- Reference (in UM Library): Bowker, G. C., & Star, S. L. (1999). Sorting Things Out. Classification and its Consequences. The MIT Press.
Summary provided by Sally Wyatt, based on the sources cited.
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### (Social) Inequality
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Theories of **(social) inequality** aim to explain imbalances in resources and power. More **functionalist theories** of inequality assume that certain forms of inequality are inevitable or desirable, fulfilling essential functions in the development of societies. Other theories highlight the conflicts driving or resulting from social disparities. **Relational inequality theory** (RIT) describes how structures shape inequality through social interaction. **Cumulative Inequality Theory or Cumulative Disadvantage Theory** goes back to the 1980s studies of sociologist Robert King Merton and analyses how imbalances develop.
Merton, R. K. (1988). [The Matthew effect in science, ii: cumulative advantage and the symbolism of intellectual property](https://www.jstor.org/stable/234750). Isis, 79(4), 606–623.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Information Disorder
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The theory of **information disorder** tries to make sense of the problematic or harmful side effects that (digital) communication can have on society as a whole or on specific groups and people. Concepts commonly linked with information disorder are misinformation, disinformation and malformation. Different approaches to information disorder were covered in the "Controversies in Digital Society" course (formerly called "Critical Debates").
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Information Society
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The social science theory of the **information society** highlights the role of information and information technology in modern society. In use since the 1970s, the concept has often been used in opposition to the "industrial society". In the BA DS course "What is a digital society?", the implications of information in the digital age were a central theme.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### (Artificial) Intelligence
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Social sciences approaches to **(artificial) intelligence** were at the heart of the BA DS course "Artificial Society". The course critically reflected on the idea of "building intelligence" and introduced utopias inspired by innovation in **artificial intelligence (AI)**. **Artificial Intelligence** refers to the theory and development of computer systems that _learn_ intelligently and perform advanced tasks linked with visual perception, speech recognition, decision-making, or translation. Artificial intelligence is thus connected with machine learning and deep learning. Moreover, artificial intelligence is vital in recent efforts to create an **intelligent internet of things**, also referred to as an **Artificial intelligence of things** (AIoT).
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Interdisciplinarity
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FASoS research and teaching are characterised by their strong commitment to interdisciplinarity. See Bijsterveld and Swinnen (2023) for a collection of chapters by FASoS staff in which they discuss their own interdisciplinary research. The entire BA DS programme is based on an interdisciplinary approach, and this is mentioned in all the promotional material, so you knew that even before you started the programme. We also addressed this explicitly in ‘What is (a) Digital Society?’ and ‘Doing Interdisciplinary Research’.
Universities have since the late 19th century been organised around disciplines, such as history, biology, sociology, etc., each of which have their own methods, concepts, and ways of thinking and working. Increasingly, the world faces major challenges that defy easy solution, and thus greater collaboration amongst scientists and scholars is needed. Even though multi-, inter- and trans-disciplinary research are often used interchangeably, they are different (see Wyatt, 2022).
References:
• Bijsterveld K., & Swinnen, A. (Eds.), Interdisciplinarity in the scholarly life cycle. Learning by example in humanities and social science research. Palgrave Macmillan. (Open access at: https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-11108-2 )
• Wyatt, S. (2022). Interdisciplinarity: Models and values for digital humanism. In H. Werthner, E. Prem, E. A. Lee, & C. Ghezzi (Eds.), Perspectives on Digital Humanism (pp. 329–334). Springer. (Open access at: https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-86144-5 )
Summary provided by Sally Wyatt, based on the sources cited.
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### Invisible work/Ghost work
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We touched on the concept of ‘invisible work’ in ‘What is (a) Digital Society?’ and again in ‘Controversies in Digital Societies’. The concept was introduced by Star and Strauss (1999). They distinguish three different types. The first is most important for understanding infrastructures. Star and Strauss call this ‘creating a non-person’, by which they mean the results of the work are visible, but the worker is not. This includes cleaners and those who maintain servers and computer systems.
Gray and Suri (2019) use the term ‘ghost work’, to capture the invisible work that makes the internet and artificial intelligence possible. Ghost workers do such tasks as content moderation, image classification, and proofreading, often for very low pay.
References (in UM Library):
• Star, S. L., & Strauss, A. (1999). Layers of silence, arenas of voice. The ecology of visible and invisible work. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 8(1–2), 9–30.
• Gray, M. L., & Suri, S. (2019). Ghost work: How to Stop Silicon Valley from Building a New Global Underclass. HMH Books.
Summary provided by Sally Wyatt, based on the sources cited.
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### Justice
</summary>
[to be provided]
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Knowledge (incl. social construction of scientific knowledge)
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The BA DS course "Making Knowledge and Manufacturing Doubt" discussed **theories of knowledge**. This course addressed knowledge practices, knowledge dissemination and utilisation, and **post-truth**. **Agnotology** is a field of research that examines the cultural creation and maintenance of knowledge, ignorance, and doubt. Crucial authors of the sociology of knowledge are Peter Burke and Robert King Merton.
One particularly important focus of the BA DS programme is the **social construction of scientific knowledge**. Scholars studying science and technology have been concerned with showing how much of science can be accounted for by the work done by scientists, engineers, and others. In this, they have stressed the need for symmetrical patterns of explanation, in which true and scientific beliefs require the same type of explanation as false and non-scientific beliefs. Social constructivist theories help us see the social labor or work that goes into **accepted knowledge**. Construction here does not mean that it has no effect. Constructed beliefs, for instance by means of statistics, or by means of excluded bodies, have real-world effects alright. Yet, only by questioning how visualizations or numbers construct knowledge or ignorance, we can deal with these effects, and we can understand the role that digitalization might play in the process.
Burke, P. (2012). [_A social history of knowledge_](https://worldcat.org/en/title/841207949) (Vol. II, from the Encyclopédie to Wikipedia). Polity. \[Book\]
Burke, P. (2016). [_What is the history of knowledge?_](https://worldcat.org/en/title/910802476) (Ser. What is history? series). Polity. \[Book\]
Merton, R. K. (1937). [The sociology of knowledge](https://doi.org/10.1086/347276). Isis, 27, 493–503.
Summary provided by Simone Schleper (History) and Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Labour process theory
</summary>
When discussing the ‘platform society’ (see entry), you were introduced to ‘labour process’ and ‘labour process theory’. The labour process simply refers to the relationships between different groups of workers, and between workers and their tools. Labour process theory (Braverman 1974) is an analysis of mid-20th century workplaces in the US. It focuses on the separation between manual and mental labour, on how technologies are used to support that separation, and on how workers might become alienated from their skills. This theory remains relevant, especially as AI is introduced into more and more workplaces.
- Reference (in UM Library): Braverman, H. (1974). Labor and monopoly capital. The degradation of work in the twentieth century. Monthly Review Press.
Summary provided by Sally Wyatt, based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Media Theory
</summary>
**Media theory** focuses on the effects of the introduction, dissemination, and widespread usage of new media, including new learning experiences and new ways of representing the world. Media theory analyses how new media change the relationship between (human) subjects and technologies, for example, concerning identity and community.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Monster Theory
</summary>
**Monster Theory** is a theoretical approach that considers concepts of _monstrosity_ in culture, ranging from folklore to digital art. Monster Theory discusses social exclusion, the challenges of change, and collective fears that shape a society. The BA DS programme introduced Monster Theory in the "Digital Cultures" course.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Moral Theories / Moral Analysis
</summary>
[to be provided]
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Narrative Theories (also see *narrative analysis* in methods)
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**Narrative theory** is based on the concept that people are essentially storytellers. Storytelling is one of the oldest and most universal forms of communication. Individuals approach their social world narratively and base their decisions and actions on these stories [(Fisher 1984](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1984.tb02986.x)). **Narrative theories** in literature and media studies suggest that the form and structure of stories (in a broad sense) depend on the media in which they are told.
Walter R. Fisher, [The Narrative Paradigm: in the Beginning, ](https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1984.tb02986.x)_Journal of Communication_, Volume 34, Issue 1, March 1984, Pages 74–87.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Platform society
</summary>
During ‘What is (a) Digital Society?’, we discussed the platform society. This term was coined by José van Dijck and her colleagues to capture the ways in which the platforms provided by big tech companies organise interactions between people, and between people and public and private organisations, and how society is increasingly shaped by these mediated interactions. They define it as follows: ‘a platform is fuelled by data, automated and organized through algorithms and interfaces, formalized through ownership relations driven by business models, and governed through user agreements.’ (van Dijck, Poell, and de Waal, 2018, p.9, italics in original)
Over the years, many terms have been introduced to capture the ways in which digital technologies shape society. These were briefly introduced in ‘What is (a) Digital Society?’. Two of the main ones are ‘information society’ (Daniel Bell, 1973) and ‘network society’ (Manuel Castells, 1996).
- Reference (in UM Library): van Dijck, J., Poell, T., & de Waal, M. (2018). The platform society. Public values in a connective world. Oxford University Press.
Summary provided by Sally Wyatt, based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Political Economy
</summary>
**Political economy** is an interdisciplinary branch of social science that analysis relationships between individuals, governments and economic markets. It takes a particular interest in public policy and is concerned with "**public goods**" and political accountability. Political economy analyses interrelations and interactions on different levels, ranging from regional case studies to **international political economy** (IPE).
The BA DS course "Digitalisation and Politics" discussed political economy with a view to **platform capitalism** and **democratic practices** in the digital age.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Postdigital (Society)
</summary>
The BA DS course "What is a digital society?" mentioned the concept of a **post-digital society**. This concept relates to the **social, cultural and technical conditions** created by a (presumably chaotic and ongoing) digital revolution. The term 'post-digital' is primarily used to describe challenges in media, arts, and design.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Postcolonialism
</summary>
In historical and political terms, postcolonialism describes the period following Western colonialism. As a theoretical framework, postcolonialism helps us analyse the experiences and perspectives of societies, governments and peoples in the formerly colonised regions of the world. Moreover, it allows us to conceptualise more recent forms of _colonialist_ or _imperialist_ strategies in politics or business (also cf. [data colonialism](https://purdue.edu/critical-data-studies/collaborative-glossary/data-colonialism.php)).
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Practice theory
</summary>
Practice theory was developed with sociology and anthropology from about 1970 onwards, though it has now spread to many other fields. The main purpose of practice theory is to combine the agency of people and social groups with the structures of modern society, including technologies, laws, and organisations. This was introduced in ‘What is (a) Digital Society?’ but underlies many other course and literature. Practice theory is a direct challenge to technological determinism as it recognises how people both shape and are shaped by technologies.
- Key authors: Pierre Bourdieu, Anthony Giddens, Theodore Schatzki, Elizabeth Shove
Summary provided by Sally Wyatt, based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Smart Cities
</summary>
**Smart cities** were addressed in several BA DS courses, including "Digitalisation and Politics". The digital transformation of **cities** is a challenge in terms of infrastructure, policy, and ethics. Academic studies, therefore, analyse city ecosystems and suggest solutions for this transformation.
Gassmann, O., Böhm Jonas, & Palmié Maximilian. (2019). [_Smart cities: introducing digital innovation to cities_](https://worldcat.org/en/title/1103440460). Emerald Publishing \[Book\]
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Standardisation
</summary>
**Standardisation** was discussed in the BA DS courses "Regulating the Digital" and "Controversies in Digital Society" (formerly: "Critical Debates"). "Controversies in Digital Society" mentioned standardisation in the context of (digital) infrastructures and focused on the development and promotion of **industry standards** aiming to make technologies more compatible, interoperable and reliable. "Regulating the Digital" placed the focus on standardisation as **legislative norm-setting**. In this course, the tutorials covered **multi-level governance** (including intergovernmentality), **legitimacy**, **financialization** and "**soft law**" (quasi-legal instruments).
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Surveillance
</summary>
**Surveillance theories** have developed in different academic fields and often across disciplines. Theories of surveillance conceptualise the material/physical and spatial aspects of watching over (groups of) people and organisational mechanisms. Theories of surveillance relate to concepts of privacy, state power, and cultures of control. Surveillance was extensively discussed in your BA DS course "Surveillance Society".
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Technological Determinism
</summary>
In "What is (a) Digital Society?", **technological determinism** was one of the three key issues framing the course. Wyatt (2023, p.26) defines technological determinism ‘as the belief that technologies are independent of society and that they drive the cultural, political and social forms of a society’. Even though most researchers prefer more nuanced accounts of the relationship between technical and social change, deterministic accounts remain prevalent in policy documents and media reports of AI and other digital technologies, promoting views of technology as outside and beyond human control. This is contrary to the whole BA DS programme.
Reference (in UM Library): Wyatt, S. (2023). Technological determinism: What it is and why it matters. In G. J. Robson & J. Y. Tsou (Eds.), Technology ethics: A philosophical introduction and readings. Routledge.
Summary provided by Sally Wyatt, based on the sources cited.
In "What is (a) Digital Society?", technological determinism was one of the three key issues framing the course. Wyatt (2023, p.26) defines technological determinism ‘as the belief that technologies are independent of society and that they drive the cultural, political and social forms of a society’. Even though most researchers prefer more nuanced accounts of the relationship between technical and social change, deterministic accounts remain prevalent in policy documents and media reports of AI and other digital technologies, promoting views of technology as outside and beyond human control. This is contrary to the whole BA DS programme.
- Reference (in UM Library): Wyatt, S. (2023). Technological determinism: What it is and why it matters. In G. J. Robson & J. Y. Tsou (Eds.), Technology ethics: A philosophical introduction and readings. Routledge.
Summary provided by Sally Wyatt, based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### (Digital) Utopianism
</summary>
**Utopias** related to digital transformations were discussed in the BA DS courses "Artificial Society", "The Good Life", and "Digital Cultures". Utopias, in general, imagine positive, perfected places or conditions. **Digital utopianism** is also referred to as **cyber-utopianism**, **web-utopianism**, **digital utopianism** or the concept of a **utopian internet**. This form of **technological utopianism** rose in the 1990s and imagines a collaborative, inclusive, libertarian and democratic world based on the Internet. This positive interpretation of the digital negates cold-war fears of "**mechanical conformity**" and the "**military-industrial complex**" (Turner, 2006).
Turner, F. (2006). [_From counterculture to cyberculture: Stewart Brand, the Whole Earth Network, and the rise of digital utopianism_](https://worldcat.org/en/title/62533774). University of Chicago Press. \[Book\]
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Visual Communication Theories (also see visual analysis in methods)
</summary>
**Visual communication** is communication through images in a broad sense. In the humanities and social sciences, the visible as an analytical category gained increasing importance in the 1990s (see literature on the "linguistic" or "iconic" turn). The BA DS programme addressed theories and concepts related to visual communication in the "Digital Cultures" course.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
</details>
## Why we need theories & concepts
A bachelor's thesis is longer and more complex than any other essay that students write throughout their studies. While most papers in BA DS courses are essentially extended literature reviews (in which students discuss existing publications), the thesis requires them to gather sources or data for an independent analysis. Therefore, a BA DS thesis needs to have several additional elements.
One of them is a **conceptual or theoretical (sometimes also called "analytical") framework** to explain why the student is analysing sources or data (e.g. interviews or survey responses) in a certain way. This "point of view" has to be rooted in **concepts** (abstract ideas relevant to a certain field of research) or a proper theory. A **theory** is a more elaborate scientific framework (often developed & refined by more than one person) that explains patterns and developments. Ideally, a theory applies to different case studies and helps you phrase a hypothesis about how society works. Theories also allow researchers to streamline and focus their analysis.
## Purpose of this wiki
3rd-year students at FASoS often struggle with the conceptual or theoretical framework and are sometimes unaware of the concepts and theories taught in their academic programme. This wiki aims to help students remember what they have learned and find a suitable approach for their thesis. The brief theory descriptions in this repository have been created collaboratively by the FASoS teaching staff and offer a starting point for the students' research. As theories are often contested and develop over time, the descriptions and resources provided here cannot be final or complete. In fact, the term *wiki* comes from the Hawaiian expression *wiki wiki*, which means "very quick".
Please note that most of the sources linked are tertiary sources (handbooks and encyclopaedias), and should be used to find helpful articles or books rather than as the core sources in literature reviews and theses.
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### Actor-Network Theory (ANT)
</summary>
**ANT** scholars (you have read about Michel Callon or Bruno Latour) are critical of the notion of _the Social_ as a separate realm from _the Material_. Instead, ANT aims to map relations that are simultaneously material (between things) and semiotic or social-cultural (between concepts). As such ANT is relational, it is a constructivist approach that focuses on how events and phenomena obtain meaning through the relationships of different heterogeneous actors or actants. ANT is particularly interesting for us in studying processes of digitalization that as you know entail both material and cultural/social aspects.
Callon, M., Law, J., & Rip, A. (1986). [Mapping the dynamics of science and technology: sociology of science in the real world](https://maastrichtuniversity.on.worldcat.org/oclc/13159883). Macmillan.
Callon, M., Lascoumes, P., & Barthe, Y. (2009). [Acting in an uncertain world: an essay on technical democracy](https://maastrichtuniversity.on.worldcat.org/oclc/229467395) (Ser. Inside technology). MIT Press.
McGee, K. (2014). [Bruno Latour: the normativity of networks](https://maastrichtuniversity.on.worldcat.org/oclc/776535261) (Ser. Nomikoi : critical legal thinkers). Routledge.
Summary provided by Simone Schleper (History), based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Agency
</summary>
**Agency** theories comprise different definitions and concepts depending on subject areas. In the social sciences, _agency_ is defined as the capacity of individuals to actively and independently choose and engage. Therefore, agency theories are often linked with (political) participation and power theories.
However, agency, above all the concept of **individual agency** is also important in the study of human-computer interactions, psychological research and organisational economoy. A paper by Ingrid Schoon & Jutta Heckhausen (2019) used the concept to analyse young people's transition from school to work. Schoon and Heckhausen define individual agency as follows:
"At the most general level, individual agency is understood as intentional action, i.e. the capability to set goals (i.e. intention), plan their pursuit and attainment in the future (i.e. action planning; foresight), and allow behavior to be guided by goal pursuit (i.e. action-regulation). Moreover, asking what motivates individuals, psychological theories of individual agency have built on the classical expectancy-value theories (Lewin et al. 1944; Tolman 1932) as applied to achievement motivated behavior (Eccles and Wigfield 2002; Heckhausen and Heckhausen 2018). Expectancy-value models propose that goal choices and their pursuit are determined by expectancies about the likelihood of attaining the goal and values associated with attaining the goal." (Schoon & Heckhausen, 2019, p. 137)
Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Agency theory: An assessment and review. The Academy of Management Review, 14(1), 57. [https://doi.org/10.2307/258191](https://doi.org/10.2307/258191)
Schlosser, M. (2019). Agency. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2019). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2019/entries/agency/](https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2019/entries/agency/)
Schoon, I., & Heckhausen, J. (2019). Conceptualizing individual agency in the transition from school to work: A social-ecological developmental perspective. Adolescent Research Review, 4(2), 135–148. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-019-00111-3](https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-019-00111-3)
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<details>
<summary>
### Automation
</summary>
The impact of **automation** (e.g. the reduction of human intervention in industrial production or data processing) was a central theme of the BA DS course "Artificial Society". Automation was, for instance, discussed concerning the future of labour markets. The course also offered an introduction to the **critique of automation**.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<details>
<summary>
### (Algorithmic) Bias
</summary>
In ‘What is (a) Digital Society?’ we introduced the notion of ‘bias’ in discussions of the common idea that technology is neutral. One of the key themes of that course was precisely about this notion of neutrality. In several modules, we explored how digital technologies are made to serve the interests of particular groups. This comes up in other courses, including ‘Digitalisation and politics’ and ‘Surveillance Society’. Bias can arise from absence of data (e.g. if only male bodies are used to collect data about the effectiveness of medicines), or by the classifications made by data scientists (e.g. that racializes groups when making decisions about jobs, mortgages, etc.)
- Reference (in UM Library): O’Neil, C. (2016). Weapons of Math Destruction. How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy. Crown Publishing.
You read various chapters of this book for ‘What is (a) Digital Society?’.
Pay attention to different meanings of bias you have encountered. Here we are talking about prejudices against individuals or groups that lead to unfair outcomes. But you have also learned about statistical bias (in ‘Quanitative Data Analysis’ and ‘Working with Big Data’). For statisticians, bias is a technical term, often referring to the lack of representativeness of data.
Summary provided by Sally Wyatt, based on the sources cited.
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<details>
<summary>
### Big Data
</summary>
In ‘What is (a) Digital Society?’ there was one module in which we introduced the term ‘big data’, and this was further picked up in ‘Working with Big Data’. ‘Big data’ as a term started to be used in the 1990s, but really accelerated after 2007. Very simply, the term refers to large volumes of data of different types (numbers, text, images, etc.) that cannot be collected or analysed in a reasonable length of time by hand or by using conventional data analysis tools. Big data promises to contribute to solving major societal problems, for example, in health care or related to the climate crisis. But it also comes with risks, to individual privacy and to the reliability of knowledge.
- See also entry about bias and the book by Cathy O’Neil, and Wyatt, S. (2022). Critical (Big) Data Studies. In D. Cressman (Ed.), The Necessity of Critique: Andrew Feenberg and the Philosophy of Technology (pp. 127–142). Springer. (in UM Library)
Summary provided by Sally Wyatt, based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Critical Making (see *design thinking* in methods)
</summary>
**Critical making** as a reflection on design and production processes is linked with the practical aspects of **design thinking** and **maker cultures** (see methods). Critical making is a theoretical approach that promotes hands-on activities to link digital technologies with societal needs. It combines creative, physical, and conceptual exploration. The attempt to put users / customers at the centre of product development also links critical making with **human-centred design**.
In the BA DS programme, critical making and design thinking were taught in the "Maker Cultures" course.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Critical Theory (Frankfurt School)
</summary>
Critical Theory (as proposed by the Frankfurt School) is a Marxist-inspired movement in social and political philosophy. It was originally associated with the work of researchers based in Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Critical Theory, in this narrow sense, has developed over several historical phases and generations since the late 1920s. Important scholars of the Frankfurt School were Horkheimer, Adorno, Marcuse and Habermas. Jürgen Habermas's idea of the public sphere was covered in the BA DS course "Digitalisation and Politics" but also mentioned in the BA DS course "Controversies"/"Critical Debates". We also looked at recent criticism and re-interpretations (see reading on the "[online anti-public sphere](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1367549420902799)" by Mark Davis).
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Connectivity
</summary>
The humanities and social sciences theories of **connectivity** are closely linked with **social network theory**. Social network theory analyses the role of social relationships in the transmission of information, the dissemination of ideas, or the transportation of goods.
In mathematics and computer science, the concept of **connectivity** is often used in **graph theory** and describes the composition of sub-graphs. From a technological perspective, connectivity relates to the set-up of **communication networks**, e.g., end-user integration.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Culture / Cultural Theory
</summary>
As Spencer-Oatey (2012) discussed, cultural theory originated in the 19th century when academic cultural studies evolved. Cultural theory was initially marked by a dichotomy of "culture versus anarchy" (Matthew Arnold, 1869). The academic discourse was also inspired by German "cultural history," which first focused on "high culture" (with an imperial undercurrent) and later incorporated (global) anthropology. The post-World War II era shifted towards exploring "popular culture". Consequently, more attention was paid to diverse expressions of art, new media concepts, and criticism of elites.
The emergence of "political culture" in the 1950s prompted critical inquiries into the visibility and accessibility of culture, participants' eligibility, and cultural phenomena's sustainability. The juxtaposition of _culture_ versus _identity_ led to exploring different "levels of culture," including pre-conscious and taken-for-granted aspects of our daily experience. Culture is now often conceptualised as an intermediary between the individual and global humanity, while it remains a dynamic "construct." The recent development of inherently **digital cultures** came with hopes for peaceful transnationality and greater inclusivity. It has to be critically discussed if and in what contexts these hopes have been fulfilled.
One pertinent problem is the **attribution of definitions** by "outsiders" to the **cultures of others**. Researchers, therefore, emphasise the necessity to discuss **cultures in the plural** to mitigate the risk of misunderstandings. The duality of "culture" as both "etic" and "emic" further complicates its understanding. It is important to remember that cultures undergo continuous change.
Regarding research methods, culture is analysed qualitatively and quantitatively, but statistical analyses especially raise the question of what we can deduct from available data. Vincent Miller's study "Understanding Digital Culture" points out that research into digital cultures has to be more than "internet studies" and should include reflections on gaming, big data, surveillance, and algorithms. Grant D. Bollmer makes suggestions for "Theorizing Digital Cultures" and explores cybernetics, online identities, aesthetics and ecologies. Contemporary research in digital cultures also examines phenomena like YouTube personalities, "liking" and "following" behaviours, digital performances, and digital creativity.
Arnold M. (1869). Culture and anarchy: an essay in political and social criticism. Smith Elder.
Bollmer, G. D. (2018). Theorizing digital cultures. SAGE Publications.
Miller V. (2011). Understanding digital culture. SAGE Publications.
Spencer-Oatey, H. (2012) What is culture? A compilation of quotations. GlobalPAD Core Concepts.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Datafication
</summary>
**Datafication** is a concept used to describe the "quantification of human life through digital information, very often for economic value". (Mejias and Couldry, 2019, **add page reference**) Datafication affects different aspects of human society, from education to healthcare. Social science research on datafication has, inter alia, been influenced by Bruno Latour's work. Datafication was important in the BA DS courses "Surveillance Society" and "What is a Digital Society?". In "What is a Digital Society", technological determinism, often linked with the belief in the neutrality of technology, was critically discussed and contrasted with the interdisciplinary approaches of _Science and technology studies (STS)_ (see separate entries on Actor-Network Theory, and Technological Determinism).
Mejias, U. A. & Couldry, N. (2019). [Datafication](https://doi.org/10.14763/2019.4.1428). Internet Policy Review, 8(4).
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Death of Data
</summary>
Theoretical approaches concerning the "**death of data**" were a tutorial topic in the BA DS course "Making Your Own Online Presence". On the one hand, the "death of data" relates to data loss or deletion motivated by infrastructural change, political decisions, or individual users' "**right to be forgotten**" (Fichtelman, 2018). On the other hand, the "death of data" is a concept in positivist versus poststructuralist debates on what data are in the first place and who has the power or the right to create them. In these debates, researchers discuss whether the existence of data depends on specific infrastructures or a theory that “acknowledges them as data” ([St. Pierre & Adams](https://worldcat.org/en/title/919307958), 2011, p. 621).
Fichtelman, C. A. (2018). [_Right to be forgotten: a legal research guide_](https://worldcat.org/en/title/1047651215) (Ser. Legal research guides, volume 73). William S. Hein & Co. \[Book\]
Koro-Ljungberg, M., MacLure, M., & Denzin, N. K. (2013). [“the death of data?”](https://journals-sagepub-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/doi/10.1177/1532708613487882#bibr25-1532708613487882) Cultural Studies \<-\> Critical Methodologies, 13(4), 353–356.
St. Pierre, Adams E. (2011). “[Post qualitative research: The critique and the coming after](https://worldcat.org/en/title/919307958).” In Denzin N. K., Lincoln Y. S. (Eds.), _Handbook of qualitative research_, 4/e (pp. 611-626). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. \[Book\]
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Digital Activism
</summary>
**Digital activism** as a contemporary form of collective action is also known as cyberactivism and comprises forms of group activism that rely on digital media/platforms. Digital activism was discussed in the BA DS course "What is a Digital Society?", which also mentioned **data activism** as an activism sub-culture closely linked with the hacker and open-source movements.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Digital Divide
</summary>
The digital divide concept concerns the gaps between different social groups (based on age, gender, education, etc.) demographics, and regions with easy access to modern information and communications technologies (ICTs) and those with restricted or no access. Theories of the digital divide try to analyse systematically analyse the extent of the gaps, why these gaps occur and how they can be closed in the future. The four most prominent theories are the Adoption-Diffusion Theory (ADT), van Dijk's Theory of Digital Technology Access and Societal Impacts, the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), and the Spatially Aware Technology Utilization Model (SATUM).
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<summary>
### Digitalisation / Digital Transformation
</summary>
**Digitalisation** is the coordinated use of digital technologies in different fields of human life. Discussing digitalisation from a social sciences perspective implies the analysis of social practices that come with an increased reliance on digital infrastructures. Such practices were covered in the BA DS course "What is a digital society?". Effects of digitalisation on political structures, political participation and democratic practices were the focus of the course "Digitalisation and Politics".
**Digital transformation**, as a process, relates to introducing digital technology into an organisation or social group. Common goals for its implementation are to improve efficiency, value, or innovation. Digital transformation as a theoretical approach analyses strategies businesses, governments, or NGOs apply to link technological change with cultural, managerial, or procedural developments of the organisation as a whole.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<details>
<summary>
### Digital Literacy / Data Literacy
</summary>
**Digital literacy** describes the skills which people need to "[live, learn, and work in a society where communication and access to information are increasingly through digital technologies like internet platforms, social media, and mobile device](https://www.westernsydney.edu.au/studysmart/home/study_skills_guides/digital_literacy/what_is_digital_literacy)." (Western Sydney University) In this sense, digital literacy is connected with broader concepts of **media literacy**.
According to [Eurostat](https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Glossary:Digital_literacy) Links to an external site., digital literacy comprises five competence areas and 21 digital competencies, including "information and **data literacy**, communication and collaboration, digital content creation, safety, and problem-solving". **Data literacy** is the ability to make sense of data, contextualise them, and critically apply them.
Digital literacy and data literacy were addressed in the BA DS courses "What is a digital society?" and "Regulating the Digital".
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<details>
<summary>
### Disintermediation
</summary>
‘Disintermediaton’ refers to cutting out those people or organisations that traditionally came between (or mediated relationships between) producers and consumers. For example, Spotify removes the need for record/CD distributors and retailers. This was discussed in relation to the ‘platform society’ in ‘What is (a) Digital Society?’ This also appeared in the text by Tim Jordan (2020) that you read for the ‘Critical Reading Test’. In the chapter you read, ‘Taxis, Hotels and Blockchains’, Jordan describes the disintermediation that occurs with Uber and Booking.com, etc.
References:
• Jordan, T. (2020). The digital economy. Polity. (in UM Library)
• Woodcock, J., & Graham, M. (2020). The gig economy. A critical introduction. Polity. (free to download at: https://acdc2007.free.fr/woodcock2020.pdf )
Summary provided by Sally Wyatt, based on the sources cited.
</details>
<details>
<summary>
### Eudaimonia
</summary>
The concept of **eudaimonia** goes back to the works of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle and is commonly translated as "happiness" or "welfare". In Aristotle's writing, eudaimonia was the highest human good. Concepts of "happiness" or the "good life" (in the context of a digital society) were the central theme of the BA DS course "The Good Life", in which you discussed welfare practices (e.g. **e-health**), "**virtue ethics**", and the concept of “**Responsible Research and Innovation**" (RRI). RRI, according to the European Commission, means that different societal actors work together in research and innovation processes to better align procedures and outcomes with the values, needs and expectations of European society.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
</details>
<details>
<summary>
### Feminist Theory (e.g. data feminism)
</summary>
Different authors have shaped **feminist theory** as a research approach, often in conjunction with the **five waves** of cultural and political feminism. A recent strand of feminist theory which pays particular attention to power relations and biases in the digital age is [data feminism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Feminism). Feminist theory not only concerns women's societal roles but also considers [intersectionality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersectionality) and challenges hierarchies and inequalities more generally.
D'Ignazio, C., & Klein, L. F. (2020). [_Data feminism_](https://worldcat.org/en/title/1130235839) (Ser. Ideas series). MIT Press. \[Book\]
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
</details>
<details>
<summary>
### (Digital/Online) Identity
</summary>
**Identity** was discussed in several BA DS courses, including "Making Your Own Online Presence" and "idt1". In the digital age, identity is often linked with deliberate **self-branding** on digital platforms.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<details>
<summary>
### Imaginaries & Metaphors
</summary>
The role of **imaginaries and metaphors** in our interactions with technology was an essential topic of the BA DS course "What is a digital society?". (Social) imaginaries are (collective) ideas, practices, or values that shape the identity of a group of people or society as a whole. **Socio-technical imaginaries** are a concept that helps us analyse relations between scientific or technological developments on the one hand and institutions and power structures on the other.
**Metaphors** are figures of speech that describe an object through comparison or through an image which we would commonly associate with a different object or context. Alongside imaginaries, metaphors can give valuable insights into underlying emotions or expectations that people cannot with technological change.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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<details>
<summary>
### Infrastructural inversion
</summary>
In the course ‘Controversies in Digital Society’, we discussed ‘infrastructures’, essential to the functioning of the contemporary world, including electricity, transport, and the internet. Infrastructures are often defined as easy to use but hard to see, and only noticeable when they do NOT work. In many courses, you were reminded of the materiality of digital technologies. The infrastructure supporting digital societies includes devices such as smartphones and laptops, and also includes satellites, underground and undersea cables, routers, standards, and many other physical and symbolic objects.
‘Infrastructural inversion’ is a concept/method introduced by Bowker and Star (1999) to help us be attentive to infrastructures, by learning to look closely at the technologies and practices (see Practice theory entry) that tend to fade into the woodwork, sometimes literally. These include paying attention to technical standards and protocols, and to both the symbolic and material aspects of infrastructure.
- Reference (in UM Library): Bowker, G. C., & Star, S. L. (1999). Sorting Things Out. Classification and its Consequences. The MIT Press.
Summary provided by Sally Wyatt, based on the sources cited.
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### (Social) Inequality
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Theories of **(social) inequality** aim to explain imbalances in resources and power. More **functionalist theories** of inequality assume that certain forms of inequality are inevitable or desirable, fulfilling essential functions in the development of societies. Other theories highlight the conflicts driving or resulting from social disparities. **Relational inequality theory** (RIT) describes how structures shape inequality through social interaction. **Cumulative Inequality Theory or Cumulative Disadvantage Theory** goes back to the 1980s studies of sociologist Robert King Merton and analyses how imbalances develop.
Merton, R. K. (1988). [The Matthew effect in science, ii: cumulative advantage and the symbolism of intellectual property](https://www.jstor.org/stable/234750). Isis, 79(4), 606–623.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Information Disorder
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The theory of **information disorder** tries to make sense of the problematic or harmful side effects that (digital) communication can have on society as a whole or on specific groups and people. Concepts commonly linked with information disorder are misinformation, disinformation and malformation. Different approaches to information disorder were covered in the "Controversies in Digital Society" course (formerly called "Critical Debates").
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Information Society
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The social science theory of the **information society** highlights the role of information and information technology in modern society. In use since the 1970s, the concept has often been used in opposition to the "industrial society". In the BA DS course "What is a digital society?", the implications of information in the digital age were a central theme.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### (Artificial) Intelligence
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Social sciences approaches to **(artificial) intelligence** were at the heart of the BA DS course "Artificial Society". The course critically reflected on the idea of "building intelligence" and introduced utopias inspired by innovation in **artificial intelligence (AI)**. **Artificial Intelligence** refers to the theory and development of computer systems that _learn_ intelligently and perform advanced tasks linked with visual perception, speech recognition, decision-making, or translation. Artificial intelligence is thus connected with machine learning and deep learning. Moreover, artificial intelligence is vital in recent efforts to create an **intelligent internet of things**, also referred to as an **Artificial intelligence of things** (AIoT).
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Interdisciplinarity
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FASoS research and teaching are characterised by their strong commitment to interdisciplinarity. See Bijsterveld and Swinnen (2023) for a collection of chapters by FASoS staff in which they discuss their own interdisciplinary research. The entire BA DS programme is based on an interdisciplinary approach, and this is mentioned in all the promotional material, so you knew that even before you started the programme. We also addressed this explicitly in ‘What is (a) Digital Society?’ and ‘Doing Interdisciplinary Research’.
Universities have since the late 19th century been organised around disciplines, such as history, biology, sociology, etc., each of which have their own methods, concepts, and ways of thinking and working. Increasingly, the world faces major challenges that defy easy solution, and thus greater collaboration amongst scientists and scholars is needed. Even though multi-, inter- and trans-disciplinary research are often used interchangeably, they are different (see Wyatt, 2022).
References:
• Bijsterveld K., & Swinnen, A. (Eds.), Interdisciplinarity in the scholarly life cycle. Learning by example in humanities and social science research. Palgrave Macmillan. (Open access at: https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-11108-2 )
• Wyatt, S. (2022). Interdisciplinarity: Models and values for digital humanism. In H. Werthner, E. Prem, E. A. Lee, & C. Ghezzi (Eds.), Perspectives on Digital Humanism (pp. 329–334). Springer. (Open access at: https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-86144-5 )
Summary provided by Sally Wyatt, based on the sources cited.
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### Invisible work/Ghost work
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We touched on the concept of ‘invisible work’ in ‘What is (a) Digital Society?’ and again in ‘Controversies in Digital Societies’. The concept was introduced by Star and Strauss (1999). They distinguish three different types. The first is most important for understanding infrastructures. Star and Strauss call this ‘creating a non-person’, by which they mean the results of the work are visible, but the worker is not. This includes cleaners and those who maintain servers and computer systems.
Gray and Suri (2019) use the term ‘ghost work’, to capture the invisible work that makes the internet and artificial intelligence possible. Ghost workers do such tasks as content moderation, image classification, and proofreading, often for very low pay.
References (in UM Library):
• Star, S. L., & Strauss, A. (1999). Layers of silence, arenas of voice. The ecology of visible and invisible work. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 8(1–2), 9–30.
• Gray, M. L., & Suri, S. (2019). Ghost work: How to Stop Silicon Valley from Building a New Global Underclass. HMH Books.
Summary provided by Sally Wyatt, based on the sources cited.
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### Justice
</summary>
[to be provided]
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Knowledge (incl. social construction of scientific knowledge)
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The BA DS course "Making Knowledge and Manufacturing Doubt" discussed **theories of knowledge**. This course addressed knowledge practices, knowledge dissemination and utilisation, and **post-truth**. **Agnotology** is a field of research that examines the cultural creation and maintenance of knowledge, ignorance, and doubt. Crucial authors of the sociology of knowledge are Peter Burke and Robert King Merton.
One particularly important focus of the BA DS programme is the **social construction of scientific knowledge**. Scholars studying science and technology have been concerned with showing how much of science can be accounted for by the work done by scientists, engineers, and others. In this, they have stressed the need for symmetrical patterns of explanation, in which true and scientific beliefs require the same type of explanation as false and non-scientific beliefs. Social constructivist theories help us see the social labor or work that goes into **accepted knowledge**. Construction here does not mean that it has no effect. Constructed beliefs, for instance by means of statistics, or by means of excluded bodies, have real-world effects alright. Yet, only by questioning how visualizations or numbers construct knowledge or ignorance, we can deal with these effects, and we can understand the role that digitalization might play in the process.
Burke, P. (2012). [_A social history of knowledge_](https://worldcat.org/en/title/841207949) (Vol. II, from the Encyclopédie to Wikipedia). Polity. \[Book\]
Burke, P. (2016). [_What is the history of knowledge?_](https://worldcat.org/en/title/910802476) (Ser. What is history? series). Polity. \[Book\]
Merton, R. K. (1937). [The sociology of knowledge](https://doi.org/10.1086/347276). Isis, 27, 493–503.
Summary provided by Simone Schleper (History) and Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Labour process theory
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When discussing the ‘platform society’ (see entry), you were introduced to ‘labour process’ and ‘labour process theory’. The labour process simply refers to the relationships between different groups of workers, and between workers and their tools. Labour process theory (Braverman 1974) is an analysis of mid-20th century workplaces in the US. It focuses on the separation between manual and mental labour, on how technologies are used to support that separation, and on how workers might become alienated from their skills. This theory remains relevant, especially as AI is introduced into more and more workplaces.
- Reference (in UM Library): Braverman, H. (1974). Labor and monopoly capital. The degradation of work in the twentieth century. Monthly Review Press.
Summary provided by Sally Wyatt, based on the sources cited.
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### Media Theory
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**Media theory** focuses on the effects of the introduction, dissemination, and widespread usage of new media, including new learning experiences and new ways of representing the world. Media theory analyses how new media change the relationship between (human) subjects and technologies, for example, concerning identity and community.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Monster Theory
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**Monster Theory** is a theoretical approach that considers concepts of _monstrosity_ in culture, ranging from folklore to digital art. Monster Theory discusses social exclusion, the challenges of change, and collective fears that shape a society. The BA DS programme introduced Monster Theory in the "Digital Cultures" course.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Moral Theories / Moral Analysis
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[to be provided]
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Narrative Theories (also see *narrative analysis* in methods)
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**Narrative theory** is based on the concept that people are essentially storytellers. Storytelling is one of the oldest and most universal forms of communication. Individuals approach their social world narratively and base their decisions and actions on these stories [(Fisher 1984](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1984.tb02986.x)). **Narrative theories** in literature and media studies suggest that the form and structure of stories (in a broad sense) depend on the media in which they are told.
Walter R. Fisher, [The Narrative Paradigm: in the Beginning, ](https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1984.tb02986.x)_Journal of Communication_, Volume 34, Issue 1, March 1984, Pages 74–87.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Platform society
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During ‘What is (a) Digital Society?’, we discussed the platform society. This term was coined by José van Dijck and her colleagues to capture the ways in which the platforms provided by big tech companies organise interactions between people, and between people and public and private organisations, and how society is increasingly shaped by these mediated interactions. They define it as follows: ‘a platform is fuelled by data, automated and organized through algorithms and interfaces, formalized through ownership relations driven by business models, and governed through user agreements.’ (van Dijck, Poell, and de Waal, 2018, p.9, italics in original)
Over the years, many terms have been introduced to capture the ways in which digital technologies shape society. These were briefly introduced in ‘What is (a) Digital Society?’. Two of the main ones are ‘information society’ (Daniel Bell, 1973) and ‘network society’ (Manuel Castells, 1996).
- Reference (in UM Library): van Dijck, J., Poell, T., & de Waal, M. (2018). The platform society. Public values in a connective world. Oxford University Press.
Summary provided by Sally Wyatt, based on the sources cited.
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### Political Economy
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**Political economy** is an interdisciplinary branch of social science that analysis relationships between individuals, governments and economic markets. It takes a particular interest in public policy and is concerned with "**public goods**" and political accountability. Political economy analyses interrelations and interactions on different levels, ranging from regional case studies to **international political economy** (IPE).
The BA DS course "Digitalisation and Politics" discussed political economy with a view to **platform capitalism** and **democratic practices** in the digital age.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Postdigital (Society)
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The BA DS course "What is a digital society?" mentioned the concept of a **post-digital society**. This concept relates to the **social, cultural and technical conditions** created by a (presumably chaotic and ongoing) digital revolution. The term 'post-digital' is primarily used to describe challenges in media, arts, and design.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Postcolonialism
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In historical and political terms, postcolonialism describes the period following Western colonialism. As a theoretical framework, postcolonialism helps us analyse the experiences and perspectives of societies, governments and peoples in the formerly colonised regions of the world. Moreover, it allows us to conceptualise more recent forms of _colonialist_ or _imperialist_ strategies in politics or business (also cf. [data colonialism](https://purdue.edu/critical-data-studies/collaborative-glossary/data-colonialism.php)).
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Practice theory
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Practice theory was developed with sociology and anthropology from about 1970 onwards, though it has now spread to many other fields. The main purpose of practice theory is to combine the agency of people and social groups with the structures of modern society, including technologies, laws, and organisations. This was introduced in ‘What is (a) Digital Society?’ but underlies many other course and literature. Practice theory is a direct challenge to technological determinism as it recognises how people both shape and are shaped by technologies.
- Key authors: Pierre Bourdieu, Anthony Giddens, Theodore Schatzki, Elizabeth Shove
Summary provided by Sally Wyatt, based on the sources cited.
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### Smart Cities
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**Smart cities** were addressed in several BA DS courses, including "Digitalisation and Politics". The digital transformation of **cities** is a challenge in terms of infrastructure, policy, and ethics. Academic studies, therefore, analyse city ecosystems and suggest solutions for this transformation.
Gassmann, O., Böhm Jonas, & Palmié Maximilian. (2019). [_Smart cities: introducing digital innovation to cities_](https://worldcat.org/en/title/1103440460). Emerald Publishing \[Book\]
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Standardisation
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**Standardisation** was discussed in the BA DS courses "Regulating the Digital" and "Controversies in Digital Society" (formerly: "Critical Debates"). "Controversies in Digital Society" mentioned standardisation in the context of (digital) infrastructures and focused on the development and promotion of **industry standards** aiming to make technologies more compatible, interoperable and reliable. "Regulating the Digital" placed the focus on standardisation as **legislative norm-setting**. In this course, the tutorials covered **multi-level governance** (including intergovernmentality), **legitimacy**, **financialization** and "**soft law**" (quasi-legal instruments).
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Surveillance
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**Surveillance theories** have developed in different academic fields and often across disciplines. Theories of surveillance conceptualise the material/physical and spatial aspects of watching over (groups of) people and organisational mechanisms. Theories of surveillance relate to concepts of privacy, state power, and cultures of control. Surveillance was extensively discussed in your BA DS course "Surveillance Society".
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Technological Determinism
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In "What is (a) Digital Society?", **technological determinism** was one of the three key issues framing the course. Wyatt (2023, p.26) defines technological determinism ‘as the belief that technologies are independent of society and that they drive the cultural, political and social forms of a society’. Even though most researchers prefer more nuanced accounts of the relationship between technical and social change, deterministic accounts remain prevalent in policy documents and media reports of AI and other digital technologies, promoting views of technology as outside and beyond human control. This is contrary to the whole BA DS programme.
Reference (in UM Library): Wyatt, S. (2023). Technological determinism: What it is and why it matters. In G. J. Robson & J. Y. Tsou (Eds.), Technology ethics: A philosophical introduction and readings. Routledge.
Summary provided by Sally Wyatt, based on the sources cited.
In "What is (a) Digital Society?", technological determinism was one of the three key issues framing the course. Wyatt (2023, p.26) defines technological determinism ‘as the belief that technologies are independent of society and that they drive the cultural, political and social forms of a society’. Even though most researchers prefer more nuanced accounts of the relationship between technical and social change, deterministic accounts remain prevalent in policy documents and media reports of AI and other digital technologies, promoting views of technology as outside and beyond human control. This is contrary to the whole BA DS programme.
- Reference (in UM Library): Wyatt, S. (2023). Technological determinism: What it is and why it matters. In G. J. Robson & J. Y. Tsou (Eds.), Technology ethics: A philosophical introduction and readings. Routledge.
Summary provided by Sally Wyatt, based on the sources cited.
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### (Digital) Utopianism
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**Utopias** related to digital transformations were discussed in the BA DS courses "Artificial Society", "The Good Life", and "Digital Cultures". Utopias, in general, imagine positive, perfected places or conditions. **Digital utopianism** is also referred to as **cyber-utopianism**, **web-utopianism**, **digital utopianism** or the concept of a **utopian internet**. This form of **technological utopianism** rose in the 1990s and imagines a collaborative, inclusive, libertarian and democratic world based on the Internet. This positive interpretation of the digital negates cold-war fears of "**mechanical conformity**" and the "**military-industrial complex**" (Turner, 2006).
Turner, F. (2006). [_From counterculture to cyberculture: Stewart Brand, the Whole Earth Network, and the rise of digital utopianism_](https://worldcat.org/en/title/62533774). University of Chicago Press. \[Book\]
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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### Visual Communication Theories (also see visual analysis in methods)
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**Visual communication** is communication through images in a broad sense. In the humanities and social sciences, the visible as an analytical category gained increasing importance in the 1990s (see literature on the "linguistic" or "iconic" turn). The BA DS programme addressed theories and concepts related to visual communication in the "Digital Cultures" course.
Summary provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited.
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