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_Please note that most of the the sources linked are tertiary sources (handbooks and encyclopaedias), and should be used to find useful sources rather than as the main sources in literature reviews and theses._ _Summaries provided by Monika Barget (History), based on the sources cited._
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### Boundary work
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Even though scientific expertise is important for policymaking, it is difficult to translate directly into policy. [Boundary work ](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-161?rskey=OZsiNq&result=2)is the done by 'boundary organisations' that bridge the gap between science and politics (for example, the IPCC in climate change). Studies using this concept examine how such organisations translate scientific evidence into different policy solutions and co-create policy, and the difficulties they face when trying to balance scientific credibility and policy usefulness.
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### Collective action problem
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The [collective action problem](https://www.britannica.com/topic/collective-action-problem-1917157) is used to study organisations and social movements. It refers to the difficulties in engaging in collective action in a group or organisation. Individuals share common goals, but also individual interests; if people think that the collective action will take place without their participation, they may try to free-ride.
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### Constructivism
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Emerging as a challenge to realism and liberalism, [constructivism ](https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199743292/obo-9780199743292-0061.xml)focuses on how the meaning of reality is constructed. Constructivist approaches often focus on the role of norms, identity and ideas in international relations (see e.g. 'norm diffusion' below).
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### Deliberative democracy
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Scholars of [deliberative democracy ](https://www.britannica.com/topic/deliberative-democracy)see democracy as stemming from deliberations and discussions between citizens, with citizens arriving at political decisions through a reasoned debate of different viewpoints on an issue. Deliberative democratic approaches focus on the quality of the process of reaching a decision, rather than the outcome.
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### Democratisation
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Democratisation is the process by which a country becomes a democracy. Approaches focusing on democratisation work to define what 'democracy' and 'democratisation' means and look at elements that lead to democratisation, for instance the [role of political parties](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-1974?rskey=nO8JQJ&result=2) in forging democracy. Other studies focus on democratisation in terms of external action, for example explaining the (lack of) success of the EU in [promoting democracy in its neighbourhood](https://www-tandfonline-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/doi/full/10.1080/13510340802575809?casa_token=4BQ7GLSC65YAAAAA%3Al2bkZfcp4hhS02woEHghJq0bN-ULEXABUjoA71IP0sMOBkEczrQEZDz5wR9A731ytbjE5TOhuM3czf8).
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### Differentiated integration
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[Differentiated integration ](https://oxfordre.com/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-1142?rskey=i817K1&result=8)refers to the concept of a 'Europe of multiple speeds', where different member states in the EU participate in EU policies to different degrees, and where non-member states also participate in some policies. Approaches using the concept of differentiated integration often try to explain why differentiated integration is now a common mode of operation in the EU, or aim to assess the effectiveness of differentiated policies.
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### Europe as a 'power'
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Given the EU's _sui generis_ nature and lack of typical foreign policy instruments (including its own military), scholars have tried to conceptualise the type of power the EU possesses. Three of the most well-known are:
* [Civilian Power Europe](https://www.cairn.info/revue-politique-europeenne-2005-3-page-63.htm) highlights the EU's power as being removed from military force, and focused on constructing ways of cooperating internationally.
* [Normative Power Europe](https://onlinelibrary-wiley-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/doi/epdf/10.1111/1468-5965.00353) sees the EU's power as being in the ideas and norms that promotes in the world, particularly democracy and human rights.
* [Market Power Europe](https://www-tandfonline-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/doi/full/10.1080/13501763.2011.646779) highlights the EU's market power, which it exercises through the externalisation of its economic and social-market measures and regulatory measures.
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### Europeanisation
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[Europeanisation ](https://oxfordre.com/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-1477;jsessionid=4C3286720694CD6069FAEDFC545333F9?rskey=lrD793&result=3)can be split into two types: bottom-up Europeanisation (the impact of member states on the formation of policies in the EU) and top-down Europeanisation (the impact of EU membership on national policies and institutions). Europeanisation approaches are also used to study the impact of the EU on other actors, for instance interest groups and organisations.
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### Euroscepticism
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[Euroscepticism](https://oxfordre.com/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-1045?rskey=WesuaK&result=3) refers to parties' or individuals' (negative) attitudes towards the EU. The concept of Euroscepticism is often divided into 'hard' Euroscepticism, which outright rejects the idea of European integration or EU membership, and 'soft' Euroscepticism, which indicates qualified opposition.
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### Feminist approaches
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Gender-based approaches often overlap with other approaches and fields of study. They include looking at [feminism in foreign policy](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-368?rskey=LCEk50&result=6), examining how [gender is mainstreamed](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-430?rskey=LCEk50&result=2) in policies, and how [gender is embedded in institutions](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-237?rskey=LCEk50&result=12).
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### Game theory
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Part of the collective action problem, [game theory ](https://www.britannica.com/topic/collective-action-problem-1917157)applies specifically to the problem posed by public or collective goods. Because public goods (such as clean air or natural resources) are costly to maintain and provide but the benefits are shared among everyone, the incentive is for actors to 'free-ride' and not provide that good. Game theory refers to the mathematical models used to research [interactions among different actors](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-515?rskey=ILbjSO&result=1).
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### Globalisation
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[Globalisation ](https://www.britannica.com/topic/globalization)refers to the integration of societies worldwide. Scholars often differentiate between different types of globalisation (e.g. economic globalisation, cultural globalisation). The concept of globalisation is used in various fields, including history, cultural studies, political economy and politics, e.g. examining the [effect of economic globalisation ](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-1755?rskey=6C7Jj7&result=1)on political behaviour.
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### Governance theories
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[Governance](https://www.britannica.com/topic/governance) refers to patterns of governing and power that lie outside of sovereign states. Governance theories help to explain forms of regulation and governance outside the nation state and the government, including e.g. [global governance](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-369?rskey=36vc0k&result=6), [the EU](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-1479?rskey=36vc0k&result=2), and [civil society](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-1415?rskey=36vc0k&result=3).
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### Institutionalist approaches
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[Institutionalist approaches ](https://www.britannica.com/topic/institutionalism)focus on the role of institutions in social and political change. 'Old' institutionalism focuses on the political institutions and bureaucracies that structure formal politics, while 'new' institutionalism focuses on how institutions are created, and how formal and informal institutions and rules constrain and enable individual and group behaviour.
The main three types of new institutionalism are:
* [Rational choice institutionalism](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-501?rskey=xYK4G8&result=3), which sees European integration as the outcome of bargaining and negotiation between rational decision-makers and actors.
* [Historical institutionalism](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-178?rskey=xYK4G8&result=4), which sees European integration as the result of historical choices of establishing institutions, which then lead to particular patterns of interaction (see 'path dependency' below).
* [Sociological institutionalism](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-179?r), which focuses on how (European) institutions shape individuals' behaviour through a 'logic of appropriateness', also looking at the power relations between actors and institutions.
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### Intergovernmentalism
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[Intergovernmentalism ](https://oxfordre.com/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-1489#:\~:text=In%20a%20nutshell%2C%20intergovernmentalism%20argues,determine%20the%20outcome%20of%20integration.)focuses on processes and outcomes as the result of bargaining among member states in the EU, but also other international organisations. [Liberal intergovernmentalism ](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-1065?rskey=pjwFqB&result=1#acrefore-9780190228637-e-1065-div2-3)is the most commonly used type, and is based on the idea that states act individually and 'anarchically'; that they represent societal interests; and that they are bounded rational actors.
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### Intersectionality
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Intersectionality refers to the ways in which different identities overlap and intersect, and particularly the effect of different marginalised identities on the ways individuals are viewed and the discrimination that they may face. Originally developed to examine the intersection of race and gender, different types of identity are now also examined, including age, disability and sexuality. Intersectional approaches have been used to question hierarchies and assumptions in [politics](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-1266?rskey=LCEk50&result=8), examine [individual political candidates](https://doi-org.mu.idm.oclc.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.241) and examine [political decision-making and policies](https://doi-org.mu.idm.oclc.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.773).
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### Judicialisation
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The [judicialisation of politics ](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-746?rskey=7aw1tn&result=1)refers broadly to the reliance on courts and the judicial system as a means to address social, moral and public policy problems. This can include the i[mpact of the judiciary](https://doi-org.mu.idm.oclc.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.103) on policy and politics. In the EU, studies often examine the [European Court of Justice](https://doi-org.mu.idm.oclc.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.1143) as a motor of integration through its case law.
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### Legitimacy
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[Legitimacy ](https://www.britannica.com/topic/legitimacy)refers to the popular acceptance of a government or form of governance, or the 'rightfulness' of political rule. Scholars [studying the EU](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-1112?rskey=tlhv6C&result=4) often draw on definitions of three types of legitimacy: input (a plurality of views), output (effective policies) and throughput (open and inclusive processes. The legitimacy of the EU is often connected with discussions about its ['democratic deficit'](https://doi-org.mu.idm.oclc.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.1141).
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### Liberalism
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In international relations, [liberalism](https://www.e-ir.info/2018/02/18/introducing-liberalism-in-international-relations-theory/) emphasises the wellbeing of individuals, and constructing institutions that protect their freedoms. In contrast to realism, which sees international politics as a zero-sum game, liberalism focuses on international cooperation and the role of international law and nongovernmental organisations in the international order. One contribution of liberalism is [democratic peace theory](https://online.norwich.edu/academic-programs/resources/7-components-of-liberalism), which argues that democratic countries rarely or never go to war, because democracies focus on maintaining internal stability; the spread of democracy is therefore beneficial for international cooperation and peace.
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### Memory in politics
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Approaches that focus on the role of memory in politics and [public memory](https://doi-org.mu.idm.oclc.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.181) look at how ideas about the past, and recollections of these memories, are constructed and circulated among members of a given community. These memories are related to the informal construction of identities and nation states, as well as regions and a sense of global or transnational memory.
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### Multilevel governance
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Multilevel governance refers to structures and types of governance at multiple levels (e.g. regional, national, transnational). It is often used to study [EU governance](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-1479?rskey=o6AZUJ&result=3) and the ways in which different levels of governance interact in different policy fields, but has also been used to study international organisations and systems of [global governance](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-558?rskey=36vc0k&result=9).
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### Multiple streams framework
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The multiple streams approach studies [agenda-setting](https://oxfordre.com/internationalstudies/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.001.0001/acrefore-9780190846626-e-508?rskey=3eW4bt&result=6), aiming to understand why some topics become a priority on the policy agenda, and why some policy solutions are considered, while others are not. It conceives of policymaking as being made up of three 'streams': policies, problems and politics; when these three streams are 'coupled' by a [policy entrepreneur](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-463?rskey=RkbVd1&result=1), a window of opportunity for policy change occurs. The multiple streams approach has been used to study [policy problems](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-130?rskey=49VfsE&result=1), including [agenda-setting and crises](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-1594?rskey=RkbVd1&result=3) and [foreign policy](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-374?rskey=n5ZLQg&result=1).
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### Neofunctionalism
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[Neofunctionalism](https://oxfordre.com/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-149?rskey=9TVLDN&result=1) was developed to explain the dynamics of the EU integration process. It sees the integration process as taking place incrementally through a 'spillover' effect, whereby integration in one sector (e.g. coal and steel) creates incentives for integration in other economic sectors.
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### Neoliberalism
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A system of economic governance, [neoliberalism](https://www.britannica.com/topic/neoliberalism) is an ideology that emphasises the value of free market competition and reducing public interference in free markets.
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### Norm and policy diffusion
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[Norm diffusion](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-442?rskey=gkV3Xd&result=2) is a constructivist theory that explains how certain norms and ideas in one polity or geographical area tend to spread to other parts. Norms emerge they become 'internalised' by actors, and then spread throughout the international system. [Policy diffusion](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-548?rskey=l0t1yF&result=3) is a related term, but looks more specifically at how the forms and content of policies spread from one polity to another.
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### Orientalism
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The idea of [Orientalism](https://www-sciencedirect-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/topics/social-sciences/orientalism) comes from Edward Said's book of the same name. It refers to the construction of 'the Orient' by European colonial powers from the 19th century onwards, particularly through academic and popular portrayals of the Middle East. Orientalism's focus on ethno- and Eurocentrism is tied to postcolonial approaches and the idea of othering.
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### Otherness
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The concept of "[other](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Other\_(philosophy))" or "otherness" refers to the idea that a particular group, nation or actor is somehow different (and usually inferior) from oneself or one's own group or nation. Studies using the concept of otherness tend to examine how otherness is constructed through discourse or action, and how constructing a sense of otherness has indications for identity and ppolicy solutions.
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### Path dependence
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Based on historical institutionalism, [path dependence ](https://www.britannica.com/topic/path-dependence)is the idea that institutions and organisations tend to take certain actions and hold certain values as a result of structural properties. Institutions come to constrain organisational life, and future choices tend to be based on how those institutions were designed and [policy decisions](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-376?rskey=YAqqEO&result=1) that were made before, particularly at 'critical junctures' of the institution's history.
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### Political ecology
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[Political ecology](https://www-sciencedirect-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/political-ecology) is an interdisciplinary field and approach to environmental studies, which focuses on topics and approaches from political economy. It looks at the power relations that affect access to natural resources and considers the political and economic structures that shape ecological change.
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### Political opportunity structures
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[Political opportunity structures ](https://www-jstor-org.mu.idm.oclc.org/stable/3598442)are used to explain when social movements successfully mobilise, the strategies they use, and when they are successful. The basic premise is that mobilisation and success depends mostly on exogenous factors, including how open and receptiveness state institutions are to external influence.
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### Populism
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The term [populism](https://www.britannica.com/topic/populism) is used to refer to parties, political movements or politicians who champion the 'common person' against 'the elite'. In the EU, the term is often (though not always) linked to Euroscepticism. Research has attempted to [define and explain](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-623?rskey=3EZr4b&result=6) populism, as well as examine populism's effect on different policy fields (e.g. [foreign policy](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-467?rskey=3EZr4b&result=2)).
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### Postcolonial theory
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[Postcolonialism](https://oxfordre.com/literature/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190201098.001.0001/acrefore-9780190201098-e-1001?rskey=8vYcPQ&result=7) focus on how the history of colonisation has shaped existing power relations between former colonising nations and colonised nations in [international relations.](https://oxfordre.com/internationalstudies/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.001.0001/acrefore-9780190846626-e-101?rskey=8vYcPQ&result=2), as well as the impact of colonial history on contemporary societies and [politics](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-830?rskey=x7Ua8w&result=9). Postcolonialism is linked to subaltern approaches (see 'Orientalism'), which aim to retell history from the perspective of the people, rather than the dominant elite class.
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### Principal-Agent theory
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Principal agent theory helps to explain why and how one set of actors (principals) delegate authority to another set of actors (agents), and the consequences of this delegation. [In the EU](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-1048?rskey=vxW4yp&result=2), studies have focused on why the member states have delegated rule-making power to the EU institutions, and how authority is delegated among institutions.
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### Rational choice theory
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[Rational choice approaches](https://www.britannica.com/topic/rational-choice-theory) assume that actors make decisions that are in line with their preferences, by evaluating the costs and benefits of the different options available to them. Many different theories fall under the umbrella of 'rational choice' (e.g. rational choice institutionalism), and such approaches can be used to study [political decision-making](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-1019?rskey=P9XSgY&result=4) at all levels, and in different policy fields (e.g. [foreign policy](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-1019?rskey=P9XSgY&result=4)).
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### Realism/neorealism
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[Realism](https://www.britannica.com/topic/realism-political-and-social-science) emphasises the role of nation states, national interests and power in international relations. Both classical realism and neorealism view the international system as anarchic, with [states competing](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-475) for their own national interests and cooperation being difficult. However, neorealism focuses more on the state level (as opposed to domestic institutions) and emphasises bipolarity (two competing great powers).
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### Resource dependency
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[Resource dependency theory](https://www.britannica.com/topic/resource-dependency-theory) highlights organisations' dependence on interactions with other organisations and actors in their external environment for resources, including funding, members and power. Although originally used to study businesses, the theory is now frequently used to explain how lobby organisations, NGOs and social movements gain members and influence policies.
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### Securitisation
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[Securitisation](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-479?rskey=yKC0D4&result=1) takes the point of view that security is intersubjective, and that threats are socially and discursively constructed. Securitisation is therefore the act of framing or constructing something as a national security threat, thereby inviting certain policy responses. In the EU, it is often used to study [migration](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-1597?rskey=ypvN5m&result=3#acrefore-9780190228637-e-1597-div3-2).
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### Social capital
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[Social capital ](https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-capital)refers to the benefits and potential to solve problems that are generated through people's social connections and participation in different groups and clubs. Social capital is measured in [different ways](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-70?rskey=Zeb2ET&result=5), but includes involvement in networks (social ties and participation), including digital networks, and the levels of trust in these ties.
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### Supranationalism
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Related to neofunctionalism, [supranationalism](https://www-cambridge-org.mu.idm.oclc.org/core/journals/international-organization/article/institutional-foundations-of-intergovernmentalism-and-supranationalism-in-the-european-union/5EBCCA32CB543DBAC4F326C2D8A27E4C) is the idea that in the study of EU politics, supranational institutions (beyond the state) are the most important, and that these institutions often move beyond the original intentions of nation states. It therefore sees EU integration as a transformative process, beyond intergovernmental cooperation.
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### Surveillance theories
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[Surveillance theory](cle/10.1007/s13347-016-0219-1) provides ways to think about surveillance in society. While earlier theories of surveillance focused on the role of institutions, bureaucracies and networks in society, recent advances incorporate considerations of new technologies and surveillance centred on technology users.
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### Urbanisation and urban politics
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Urbanisation and [urban politics](https://www-sciencedirect-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/urban-politics) cover a range of topics and approaches that focus on the role of cities as sites of governance, social and political activity. This comprises a range of topics, including local governance and regulation; the specificities of [urban activism and community movements](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-1723?rskey=X8T7Ol&result=3#acrefore-9780190228637-e-1723-div1-1); and the complex politics of different types of urban environments, including [slums](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-985?rskey=vXrkhF&result=1).
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### Varieties of capitalism
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[Varieties of capitalism](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-161?rskey=OZsiNq&result=2) is an approach within comparative political economy that provides a typology of macroeconomic systems. The main distinction made is between 'liberal market economies' (where coordination occurs mostly through the market) and 'coordinated market economies' (where formal institutions play a more important role).
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### Venue shopping
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Venue-shopping focuses on how actors select which venue or forum is the most favourable in which to take political or legal action, and the influence of different venues on political outcomes. For instance, venue-shopping is part of the [multiple streams framework](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-1594?rskey=6jWx50&result=1#acrefore-9780190228637-e-1594-div1-7), examining how actors push issues onto the agenda by selecting the best decision-making arena to target.
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### Wicked problems
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In the study of crises and policy problems, [wicked problems](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-213?rskey=wDTuVq&result=1) are particularly socially complex and contested problems that are defined differently by different actors, and cannot be solved through rational planning and management alone. There are [various definitions](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-130?rskey=wDTuVq&result=2#acrefore-9780190228637-e-130-div1-5) of wicked problems; the concept concept is used to explain difficulties in creating policy responses to certain issues, and why some solutions are more accepted than others.
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### World systems theory
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[World systems theory](https://oxfordre-com.mu.idm.oclc.org/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-349?rskey=JLxZeq&result=2#acrefore-9780190228637-e-349-div1-3) is a way to see the world where countries are classified according to their economic relationships and classes, divided into 'Core', 'Semi-Periphery' and 'Periphery' countries. It highlights the role of globalisation in connecting countries economically, and in enforcing power imbalances between the different types of countries.
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